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Holiest sites in Sunni Islam

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The Kaaba at Masjid al-Haram, located in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, is the holiest site in Sunni Islam.

The three holiest sites in Sunni Islam, in descending order, are Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, the Prophet's Mosque in Medina, and Al-Aqsa Mosque Compound in Jerusalem.[1][2][3][4][5][6] Beyond this shared recognition across both Sunni and Shia traditions, the two branches place varying degrees of religious and devotional importance on other sites. In Sunni Islam, the tombs of the founders of the Sunni schools of thought hold religious and spiritual significance. Attitudes toward visiting shrines and undertaking pilgrimages to them vary among the different Sunni sects. The Twelve Imams are also revered in Sunni Islam as family members of the Prophet Muhammad and as highly important figures in Islamic history, and Sunnis visit their shrines out of veneration.[7][8][9][10][11][12][13]

Holiest sites accepted by all Muslims

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The Kaaba at Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, is the holiest site in Sunni Islam.
The Prophet's Mosque in Medina, is the second holiest site in Sunni Islam
Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem is the third holiest site in Sunni Islam

Masjid al-Haram

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Mecca in Saudi Arabia is the holiest city, as it is the birthplace of Islam, the birthplace Muhammad, and home to the holiest site, Kaaba in Masjid al-Haram.[14] Only Muslims are allowed to enter the city.[15] The rites of hajj pilgrimage is to circumambulate the Kaaba seven times. It contains the Maqam Ibrahim, the Zamzam Well, the hills of Safa and Marwa, Hateem, and the Black Stone, which belonged to Adam and Eve in Paradise. After Abraham built the Kaaba, an angel brought him the Black Stone, a celestial stone that had fallen from Heaven on the Abu Qubays Hill. The Black Stone is believed to be the only remnant of the original structure made by Abraham. After placing the Black Stone in the eastern corner of the Kaaba, Abraham received a revelation in which God told the aged prophet that he should now go and proclaim the pilgrimage to mankind.

Muhammad played a central role in the Kaaba's restoration. Prior to his prophethood, Muhammad was involved in its rebuilding following flood damage in 605 CE, during which he resolved a dispute among Quraysh clans by proposing that the Black Stone be placed on a cloth and lifted collectively, with Muhammad himself setting it in position. After the Conquest of Mecca, Muhammad entered the Kaaba and removed all of its idols, dedicating the house exclusively to the worship of God. He reaffirmed the Kaaba's association with Abraham in Islamic tradition. The area of Mecca also includes Mount Arafat, Mina, Muzdalifah and Jannat al-Mu'alla. As one of the Five Pillars of Islam, every Muslim who is capable must perform the hajj at least once in their lifetime. Hajj is one of the largest annual gatherings in the world, second only to pilgrimages to the Shia Shrines.[16]

The Prophet's Mosque

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The Prophet's Mosque in Medina, Saudi Arabia, is the second holiest site. Muhammad himself was involved in the mosque's construction. The mosque's land originally belonged to two young orphans, Sahl and Suhayl, and when they learned that Muhammad wished to acquire their land to build a mosque, they went to him and offered the land as a gift. Muhammad insisted on paying a price because they were orphaned children. The price agreed upon was paid by Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, who thus became the donor of the mosque on behalf of Muhammad. One of the most notable parts of the mosque is its Green Dome, where Muhammad is buried under it. Originally an open-air building, the mosque served as a community center, a court of law, and a religious school. It contained a raised platform or pulpit (minbar) for the people who taught the Quran and for Muhammad to give the Friday sermon (khutbah). Subsequent Muslim rulers greatly expanded and decorated the mosque. In 1909, under the reign of Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II, it became the first place in the Arabian Peninsula to be provided with electrical lights. It is a tradition to visit the mosque after or before the pilgrimage to Mecca. The first two Rashidun caliphs, Abu Bakr and Umar, are also buried there. Abu Bakr, Muhammad's closest friend and father-in-law who is referenced in the Quran, is regarded in Sunni Islam as the greatest individual after the prophets and messengers.

The Al-Aqsa Mosque

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Al-Aqsa Mosque Compound in Jerusalem is where Muhammad ascended bodily into heaven during the night journey (Isra' and Mi'raj), had a vision of afterlife, and returned. It is the third-holiest site, held in esteem by both Sunni and Shia Muslims due to its history as a place of worship by many prophets such as Abraham, David, Solomon, Elijah and Jesus.[17] The compound contains the Dome of the Rock, the Qibli Mosque (Al-Aqsa Mosque), Al-Marwani Mosque and others. Verses 1–18 of Surāh an-Najm of the Quran, and some verses of the Surāh al-’Isrā’, mentions the Al-Aqsa Mosque and allude to the night journey.[18][19] In 610 CE, Muhammad was taken by angels Gabriel and Michael from Masjid al-Haram in Mecca to visit "The Furthest Mosque" (Masjid al-Aqsa) in Jerusalem over the night, where he led the prayer among the prophets, and was then taken to the heavens from the Foundation Stone.[20]

Sunni only

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Abu Hanifa Mosque in Baghdad (Iraq), Mausoleum of al-Shafi in Cairo (Egypt), Arif Agha Mosque in Baghdad, and Jannat al-Baqi Cemetery in Medina (Saudi Arabia) contain the graves of the founders of all four Sunni schools of thought: Abu Hanifa, al-Shafiʿi, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, and Malik ibn Anas, respectively. Abu Hanifa and Malik were both students of the sixth Shia Imam, Sadiq.

The tomb of Abu Hanifa, founder of the Hanafi school of Sunni jurisprudence, is a major Sunni site reflecting the development of Sunni thought. It is located in Baghdad, Iraq. The Hanafi school, or Hanafism, is the largest school of Islamic jurisprudence out of the four schools within Sunni Islam. Abu Hanifa’s legal methodology profoundly influenced Islamic law across the Abbasid Caliphate, Central Asia, the Ottoman Empire, and South Asia. His burial site became associated with scholarship and Sunni legal identity, particularly in regions where Hanafism is predominated.[21]

The Mausoleum of al-Shafiʿi, founder of the Shafiʿi school of Sunni jurisprudence, is one of Cairo’s most important monuments. Al-Shafiʿi played a foundational role in systematizing Islamic legal theory (uṣūl al-fiqh), and his influence extends across East Africa, Southeast Asia, and parts of the Middle East.[22] His tomb is a major site of Sunni scholarly memory. The current mausoleum structure dates largely to the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods. The burial site of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, founder of the Hanbali school of Sunni jurisprudence, also holds strong significance in Sunni Islam.[23] Ahmad ibn Hanbal is particularly remembered for his resistance during the Mihna, during which he upheld traditional Sunni doctrine against state-imposed theology. His legacy shaped Sunni creedal orthodoxy and later influenced movements such as Atharism. The Maliki school of Sunni Islam was founded by Malik ibn Anas. Malik is buried at Al-Baqi Cemetery in Medina.

Historically Significant Places

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Quba Mosque

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Quba Mosque in Medina, Saudi Arabia, was the first mosque built by Muhammad, established on the first day of his emigration. He personally participated in laying its foundations.

The Quba Mosque, located on the outskirts of Medina, Saudi Arabia, holds the distinction of being the first mosque in the world.[24][25] It was founded by Muhammad upon his arrival in the vicinity of Medina during the hijra (migration from Mecca). He is reported to have personally participated in laying its foundations.[26]

The mosque is frequently mentioned in Islamic tradition due to its association with piety and ritual purity.[27] Several hadiths state that performing prayer in Quba Mosque carries special merit. While The Quba Mosque is not considered a holy site, it occupies a distinguished place in Islamic tradition.

Masjid al-Qiblatayn

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Masjid al-Qiblatayn in Medina, Saudi Arabia, is the place where Muhammad received God’s command to change the direction of prayer (qibla) from Jerusalem to Mecca.

Masjid al-Qiblatayn in Medina, Saudi Arabia, is renowned for its association with a pivotal moment in Islam. The mosque is identified as the place where Muhammad received the revelation instructing Muslims to change the direction of prayer (qibla) from Jerusalem to Mecca.[28][29] The event occurred approximately 16–17 months after the Hijrah.[30] The mosque symbolized the transition of Islam from its early phase toward a distinct religious community with Mecca as its spiritual center.

For this reason, Masjid al-Qiblatayn occupies a special place in Islamic memory. The mosque is one of the few mosques in the world to have contained two mihrabs (niches indicating the qibla) in different directions. It is among the few mosques that date to the time of Muhammad, along with the Quba Mosque and the Prophet's Mosuqe, considering that Masjid al-Haram and Al-Aqsa Mosque are associated with earlier prophets.

Ibrahimi Mosque

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Hebron in Palestine was where Abraham settled and bought the Cave of the Patriarchs as a burial place for his wife Sarah. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, along with their wives Sarah, Rebecca, and Leah, are all buried in the cave. Muslims built the Ibrahimi Mosque on top of the cave in 750 AD to honor them, and believe that Muhammad visited Hebron on his night journey from Mecca to Jerusalem.

Hebron in Palestine is venerated in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Abraham settled in Hebron and bought the Cave of the Patriarchs as a burial place for his wife Sarah. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, along with their wives Sarah, Rebecca, and Leah, were all buried in the cave. Muslims built the Ibrahimi Mosque on top of the cave to honor Abraham, and believe that Muhammad visited Hebron on his night journey from Mecca to Jerusalem. There is also a left footprint in a small niche at the mosque, believed to be from Muhammad.[31]

Following the Babylonian captivity, the Edomites settled in Hebron. During the first century BC, Herod the Great built the wall that still surrounds the Cave of the Patriarchs today, which later became a church, and then a mosque. With the exception of a brief Crusader control, successive Muslim dynasties ruled Hebron from the 7th century CE until the Ottoman Empire's dissolution following World War I, when the city became part of British Mandatory Palestine. Hebron is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.

Mount Sinai

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Mount Sinai in the Asian part of Egypt, is the place where according to the Torah, Bible, and Quran, Moses received the Ten Commandments from God.

The Sinai Peninsula is associated with the prophets Harun (Aaron) and Musa (Moses). Numerous references to Mount Sinai exist in the Quran, where it is called Ṭūr Saināʾ,[32] Ṭūr Sīnīn,[33] and aṭ-Ṭūr[34] and al-Jabal (both meaning "the Mount").[35] As for the adjacent Wād Ṭuwā (Valley of Tuwa), it is considered as being muqaddas[36][37] (sacred),[38][39] and a part of it is called Al-Buqʿah Al-Mubārakah ("The Blessed Place").[40]

It is the location where, according to the sacred scriptures of the three major Abrahamic religions (Torah, Bible, and Quran), Moses received the Ten Commandments from God. The summit has a mosque that is still used by Muslims. At the summit also is "Moses' cave", where Moses is believed to have waited to receive the Ten Commandments from God.

Umayyad Mosque

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Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria, where Muslims and Christians alike consider it the burial place of the head of John the Baptist, revered in Islam as Prophet Yahya. Islamic eschatology holds that the Mahdi will emerge before the End of Times to restore justice, and this is the place where Isa (Jesus) will descend from heaven at his Second Coming to accompany him. The mosque also holds special importance in Shia Islam, as it contains shrines commemorating Husayn, whose martyrdom is frequently compared to that of John the Baptist. Imam Husayn's head was kept there before being transported to Karbala, while his surviving family members were imprisoned in the mosque.

The importance of Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, Syria, stems from the eschatological reports concerning the mosque and historic events associated with it. The head of John the Baptist, revered in Islam as the prophet Yahya, is believed to be inside the mosque, which also houses one of only four original copies of the Quran. Prayers in the Umayyad mosque are considered to be equal to those offered in Al-Aqsa Mosque.[41] The Mosque is also the place where Muslims believe Isa (Jesus) will return at the end of times, atop the "Minaret of Isa" of the mosque, during the time of a Fajr prayer.

The mosque's site has been used as a house of worship since the Iron Age. It enjoyed great prestige throughout its history and was regarded as a "wonder of the world" by many medieval Muslim writers. Muslims and Christians alike consider the site a holy place. The mosque also holds a special importance in Shia Islam since it contains shrines commemorating Husayn, whose martyrdom is frequently compared to that of John the Baptist.[42] There is a location in the mosque where Husayn's head was kept.[43] Furthermore, the surviving members of his family were imprisoned in the mosque for 60 days.[44]

Jabal al-Nour

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Jabal al-Nour in the Hejaz region of Saudi Arabia, where Muhammad received his first revelation in the Hira Cave, holds tremendous significance.

Jabal al-Nour in Mecca holds tremendous significance for Muslims throughout the world, as it is here where Muhammad received his first revelation of the Quran, which consisted of the first five verses of Surah Al-Alaq from the angel Gabriel. Visitors climb the mountain daily to see the Cave of Hira, the place where Muhammad also received the first revelation on the Laylat al-Qadr (night of power) from Gabriel. During the Hajj (pilgrimage), an estimated five thousand visitors climb it daily to see the cave.

Before Muhammad's first revelation, he had transcendental dreams, in which were signs that his prophethood had begun and that the stones in Mecca would greet him with the salaam. These dreams lasted for six months. An increasing need for solitude led Muhammad to seek seclusion and meditation (Muraqabah) in the rocky hills of Mecca. He retreated to the cave for one month each year, engaging in seclusion (Tahannuth). He took provisions and fed the poor who came to him. Before returning home to his family for more provisions, he would circumambulate the Kaaba seven times.

Badr, Uhud and Khaybar

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The sites of the three major battles, Badr, Uhud, and Khaybar, located in Saudi Arabia, hold great historical significance. The Battle of Badr is referred to in the Quran as the Day of Criterion. The much less equipped army of Muhammad’s small companions defeated the massive army of the Quraysh polytheists, led by Abu Jahl. The battle has been remembered as a decisive victory attributed to divine intervention. The Battle of Uhud is revered because many of Muhammad’s companions were martyred there, including his paternal uncle and milk-brother Hamza. The Quran discusses the events and lessons of Uhud in considerable detail. The Battle of Khaybar holds significance because of the major victory over the Jewish strongholds, an important turning point in the consolidation of the early Muslims. The site holds special significance in Shia Islam because of the prominent role of Ali, Muhammad's cousin, his son-in-law and the first Shia Imam. He killed the Jewish Knight Marhab, torn the fortress' gate from its hinges and used it as a bridge for the Muslim forces to cross the moat. The gate was reportedly so heavy that forty men were later needed to put it back in place. During Muhammad’s lifetime and his battles against the polytheists, Ali, Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman were the Prophet's closest companions, always standing by his side and shaping the Islamic history.

The Battle of Badr is referred to as The Day of the Criterion in the Quran. On 13 March 624 CE, Muhammad, commanding an small army of his companions, defeated a massive army of the Quraysh polytheists led by Abu Jahl. It was the first large-scale engagement between the Muslims and the Quraysh Meccans. Advancing from the north, the Muslims faced the polytheist Meccans. The Muslim victory strengthened Muhammad's position; The Medinese eagerly joined his future expeditions, and tribes outside Medina openly allied with Muhammad. The battle has been passed down as a decisive victory attributable to divine intervention. The site of Badr marks the location of the battle and is regarded as one of the most significant historical sites in Islam. The story of Badr has been passed down throughout the centuries, before being combined in the multiple biographies of Muhammad that exist today. All knowledge of the battle comes from traditional Islamic accounts.

Mount Uhud was the site of the second battle between Muhammad and the polytheists of his tribe, Quraysh. The Battle was fought on 19 March, 625 CE, between a small force of Muslims and a much larger polytheist force from Mecca. It is especially revered because many companions of Muhammad, including Hamza, were martyred there, and Muhammad is reported to have said, "Uhud is a mountain that loves us and we love it."[45] The grave of Hamza is located near the Mount. The Quran discusses the events and lessons of the Uhud Battle in considerable detail, especially in Surah Al Imran, verses 121–180.

The Battle of Khaybar was fought between the early Muslims and the Jewish community of Khaybar in April 628 CE. Khaybar was home to a sizable community of Jewish tribes. As Muhammad's army began to march on Khaybar, the Banu Ghatafan and other Jewish tribes did not, or could not, send the reinforcements that had been expected to arrive to defend the settlement, further endangering the Jewish army's poor fortifications. After a brief period of fighting, Khaybar fell to the Muslims and the Jewish knight Marhab was killed by Ali. Khaybar was a major victory and marked an important turning point in the consolidation of the early Muslims. The site holds special significance in Shia Islam because of the prominent role of Ali in the battle. Ali is said to have lifted the fortress' gate from their hinges, climbed into the moat and held them up to make a bridge whereby the attackers gained access to the redoubt. The gate was so heavy that forty men were later required to put it back in place.

See also

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Footnotes

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  1. ↑ Mustafa Abu Sway. "The Holy Land, Jerusalem and Al-Aqsa Mosque in the Qur'an, Sunnah and other Islamic Literary Source" (PDF). Central Conference of American Rabbis. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-28.
  2. ↑ National Geographic Society (U.S.); de Blij, H.J.; Downs, R.; John Wiley & Sons (2007). Wiley/National Geographic College Atlas of the World. Wiley. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-471-74117-6. Retrieved 2022-06-15. Al 'Aqsa is the second oldest mosque in Islam after the Kaaba in Mecca and is third in holiness after the mosques in Mecca and Medina. It holds up to 400,000 worshippers at one time.
  3. ↑ Quran 33:09–73
  4. ↑ Quran 9:25–129
  5. ↑ Quran 48:22–29
  6. ↑ The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 7 (New ed. 2006 ed.). Brill. 2006. pp. 97–105.
  7. ↑ "An Iraqi delegation from the Sunni Endowment visited the Holy Shrine of Imam Ali (PBUH)". www.alarbaeen.ir. Retrieved 2026-02-16.
  8. ↑ Waziri, Adam Isa (2022-11-21). "Sunni Professors, Scholars From Pakistan Visit Imam Husain's Holy Shrine in Karbala » Education Monitor News". Education Monitor News. Retrieved 2026-02-16.
  9. ↑ Arooj (2024-02-01). "Sunni scholars from Turkey express happiness upon visiting holy shrine of Imam Hussein". Shia Waves. Retrieved 2026-02-16.
  10. ↑ "Iraqi Sunni Friday prayer leaders visit Imam Reza (AS) holy shrine". Hawzah News Agency. 2019-08-16. Retrieved 2026-02-16.
  11. ↑ "English Pakistani Sunnis Visit Imam Reza Shrine". ShiaChat.com. Archived from the original on 2025-06-17. Retrieved 2026-02-16.
  12. ↑ "Sunni Cleric: Imam Reza Shrine a Center for Unifying Muslims". ABNA English. 2015-01-14. Retrieved 2026-02-17.
  13. ↑ "Imam Reza (A.S.) Is the Symbol of Unity among Islamic Sects". www.alarbaeen.ir. Retrieved 2026-02-17.
  14. ↑ Trofimov, Yaroslav (2008), The Siege of Mecca: The 1979 Uprising at Islam's Holiest Shrine, New York, p. 79, ISBN 978-0-307-47290-8{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  15. ↑ Tucker & Roberts 2008, p. 673.
  16. ↑ Blatt 2015, p. 27.
  17. ↑ Michigan Consortium for Medieval and Early Modern Studies (1986). Goss, V. P.; Bornstein, C. V. (eds.). The Meeting of Two Dads: Cultural Exchange Between East and West During the Period of the Crusades. Vol. 21. Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan University. p. 208. ISBN 0918720583.
  18. ↑ "Surah Al-Isra - 1". quran.com. Retrieved 16 August 2021.
  19. ↑ Quran 17:1–7
  20. ↑ Nasser Rabbat (1989). "The meaning of the Umayyad Dome of the Rock". Muqarnas. 6: 12–21. doi:10.2307/1602276. JSTOR 1602276.
  21. ↑ Dodkhudoeva, Lola (2011-01-01). "Abu Hanifa and His Epoch". Абу Ханифа и его эпоха.
  22. ↑ El Shamsy, Ahmed, ed. (2013), "Tradition under Siege", The Canonization of Islamic Law: A Social and Intellectual History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 17–43, ISBN 978-1-107-04148-6, retrieved 2026-01-29
  23. ↑ "Dargahinfo – Complete Collection of Dargahs World Wide". dargahinfo.com. Retrieved 2026-01-29.
  24. ↑ Admin (2023-07-12). "The Prophet's Entry Into Quba' And The Construction of Masjid Al-Quba – Authentic Seerah". Precious Gems from the Quran and Sunnah. Retrieved 2026-01-29.
  25. ↑ "Masjid al-Quba: The First Mosque Established By The Prophet – Our Prophet 5 – 85/90". al-islam.org. 2025-07-21. Retrieved 2026-01-29.
  26. ↑ admin (2025-06-13). "Quba Walk In The Prophet's ﷺ Steps". Crowntravels. Retrieved 2026-01-29.
  27. ↑ "Religious and Historical Significance of Quba Mosque". IIUM Today. 2023-01-06. Retrieved 2026-01-29.
  28. ↑ "Masjid al-Qiblatain". People of Madina. 2024-03-30. Retrieved 2026-01-29.
  29. ↑ "Al-Qiblatayn Mosque". saudipedia.com. Retrieved 2026-01-29.
  30. ↑ "The Switch of the Qiblah: Story of Masjid Qiblatayn | Al-Aqsa: Past, Present, and Promise". Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research. Retrieved 2026-01-29.
  31. ↑ Vitullo, Anita (2003). "People Tied to Place: Strengthening Cultural Identity in Hebron's Old City". Journal of Palestine Studies. 33: 68–83. doi:10.1525/jps.2003.33.1.68. quote: From earliest Islam, the sanctuaries of Hebron and Jerusalem [al-Haram al-Ibrahimi and al-Haram al-Sharif] were holy places outranked only by Mecca and Medina; the Ibrahimi Mosque was originally regarded by some Muslims as Islam's fourth holiest site. Muslims believe that the Hebron sanctuary was visited by Muhammad on his mystical nocturnal journey from Mecca to Jerusalem.🗿🗿🗿🗿
  32. ↑ Quran 23:20 (Translated by Yusuf Ali)
  33. ↑ Quran 95:2 (Translated by Yusuf Ali)
  34. ↑ Quran 2:63–93
  35. ↑ Quran 7:103–156
  36. ↑ Quran 20:9–99
  37. ↑ Quran 79:15–25
  38. ↑ Ibn Kathir (2013-01-01). Dr Mohammad Hilmi Al-Ahmad (ed.). Stories of the Prophets: [قصص الأنبياء [انكليزي. Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah (Arabic: دَار الْـكُـتُـب الْـعِـلْـمِـيَّـة). ISBN 978-2745151360.
  39. ↑ Elhadary, Osman (2016-02-08). "11, 15". Moses in the Holy Scriptures of Judaism, Christianity and Islam: A Call for Peace. BookBaby. ISBN 978-1483563039.[permanent dead link]
  40. ↑ Quran 28:3–86
  41. ↑ Janet L. Abu-Lughod (2007). "Damascus". In Dumper, Michael R. T.; Stanley, Bruce E. (eds.). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 119–126. ISBN 978-1-5760-7919-5.
  42. ↑ Talmon-Heller, Daniella; Kedar, Benjamin Z.; Reiter, Yitzhak (2016). "Vicissitudes of a Holy Place: Construction, Destruction and Commemoration of Mashhad Ḥusayn in Ascalon" (PDF). Der Islam. 93. doi:10.1515/islam-2016-0008. Archived from the original on 2020-05-12. Retrieved 2026-01-30.
  43. ↑ "Remembering the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus". مؤسسة تاريخ دمشق (in Arabic). 2017-01-18. Retrieved 2026-02-04.
  44. ↑ Nafasul Mahmoom. p. 368.
  45. ↑ "Sahih Muslim 1393b - The Book of Pilgrimage - كتاب الحج - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (صلى الله عليه و سلم)". sunnah.com. Retrieved 2026-07-08.

References

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  • Aghaie, Kamran Scot (2004). The Martyrs of Karbala: Shi'i Symbols and Rituals in Modern Iran. University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-98448-1
  • Majlisi, Mohammad Baqer. Bihar al-Anwar V.97.(In Arabic)
  • Shimoni, Yaacov & Levine, Evyatar (1974). Political Dictionary of the Middle East in the 20th Century. Quadrangle/New York Times Book Co.
  • Zabeth, Hyder Reza (1999). Landmarks of Mashhad. Alhoda UK. ISBN 964-444-221-0.
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